解放军文职招聘考试 英语语言学-解放军文职人员招聘-军队文职考试-红师教育
发布时间：2017-05-21 16:17:07第一章:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.(语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究.)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统.)The scope of linguistics(语言学的研究视野):1.phonetics(语音学)2.phonology(音位学)3.morphology(形态学)4.syntax(句法学)5.semantics(语义学)6.pragmatics(语用学)Some important distinctions in linguistics(语言学中的一些重要区分):1.prescriptive descriptive(规定性与描写性)2.synchronic diachronic(共时性与历时性)3.speech and writing(言语与文字)4.language and parole(语言与言语)5.competence and performance(语言能力与语言运用)6.traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学)The difference between traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学之间的异同点):1.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.3.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.The design/defining features of human language(语言的甄别性特征):1.Arbitrariness(语言的武断性/任意性)2. Productivity(语言的创造性)3.Duality(语言的二重性)4.Displacement(语言的移位性)5.Cultural transmission(语言的文化传递性)第二章:Phonetics(语音学) is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s languages.(语音学指的是对语言的语音媒介进行的研究)Three branches of phonetics:1.Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) from the speakers point of view, how speakers produce speech sounds.2.Auditory phonetics(听觉语音学) from the hearer s point of view, how sounds are perceived.3.Acoustic phonetics(声学语音学) from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.Speech organs(发音器官):three important areas:1.the pharyngeal cavity(咽腔)----the throat2.the oral cavity(口腔)----the mouth3.the nasal cavity(鼻腔)----the noseThe diagram of speech organs:1.lips(唇) 2.teeth(齿) 3.teeth ridge(alveolus)(牙齿/龈) 4.hard palate(硬腭) 5.soft palate(velum)(软腭) 6.uvula(小舌) 7.tip of tongue(舌尖) 8.blade of tongue(舌面) 9.back of tongue(舌后) 10.vocal cords(声带) 11.pharyngeal cavity(咽腔) 12.nasal cavity(鼻腔)Orthographic representation of speech sounds(语音的正字法表征):1. A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA)国际音标.2. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.(其基本原则是一个字母待变一个音.)Braod transcription(宽式标音)----used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics.Narrow transcription(严式标音)----used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics.Classification of English consonants(辅音的分类):Ⅰ、in terms of manner of articulation(发音方式):1.stops(闭塞音)/plosives(爆破音)2.fricatives(摩擦音)3.affricates(塞擦音)4.liquids(流音)5.nasals(鼻音)6.glides(滑音)/semivowels(半元音)Ⅱ、in terms of place of articulation(发音部位):1.bilabial(双唇音)2.labiodental(唇齿音)3.dental(齿音)4.alveolar(齿龈音)5.palatal(腭音)6.velar(软腭音)7.glottal(喉音)Classification of English vowels(元音的分类):1.monophthongs or pure/single vowels(单元音)2.diphthongs(双元音)Phonology(音位学) studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is , the ways in which speech sounds forms systems and patterns in human languages.(音位学研究的是语音如何组合在一起并在交流中传达意义.)Phone(音素):a phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.(音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段.我们在语言交际中听到的、发出的语音都是音素。)Phoneme(音位):a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.(音位是一个音位学的单位,而且是一个有区别意义的单位,是个抽象的单位.它不是指任何语言,而是由某特定语音情境下的某个音素来代表或实现.)Allophone(音位变体) can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments .Phonemic contrast(音位对立):different or distinctive phonements sre in phonemic contrast.(如果相似的语音是2个区别性的音位,就可以说这两个音形成了音位对立.)Complementary distribution(互补分布):allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.They do not distinguish meaning, they occur in different phonetic contexts. (如果相似的语音是同一个音位的音位变体,那么它们就不能区别意义,而是在分布上互相补充,这样两个音处于互补分布之中.)Minimal pair(最小对立体):when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.( 当两个词除了一个在此语言串的同一位置上产生的语音音段之外,在其他所有方面都相同,那么这两个声音组合就可以说是形成了一个最小对立体.)Some rules in phonology:1.sequential rules(序列规则)2.assimilation rule(同化规则)3.deletion rule(省略规则)Suprasegmental features(超切分特征):1.stress(重音) 2.tone(音调) 3.intonation(语调)What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答:Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors:the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.1.Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest.2.The openness of the mouth:close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3.The shape of the lips:unrounded, rounded4.Then the English vowels can also be classified according to the length of the sound. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense and lax vowels.第三章:Morphology(形态学) refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.(形态学就是对于词的内部结构和构成规则的研究.)第四章:Synatx(句法学) is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.(句法学是语言学的一个分支,它研究词是如何被组合成句子的,以及支配句子构成的规则.)Category(范畴) refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same of similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.(范畴是指在某一特定的语言中执行相同或相近功能的一组语言项目,如句子,名词或短语,或者动词.)The ariteria on which categories are determined(判断词范畴的方法):1.meaning(意义) 2.inflection(曲折变化) 3.distribution(分布)Phrases(短语) that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements(成分): head(中心语), specifier(标志语), and complement(补语).第五章:Semantics(语义学) can be simply defined as the study of meaning.Some views concerning the study of meaning:1.the naming theory(命名论)2.the conceptualist view(概念论): This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to;rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(概念论认为,在语言学的形式合它的所指之间并不存在着直接的联系;而是在意义的诠释中,它们通过大脑思维中的概念)3.contextualism(语境论): Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context---elements closely linked with language behaviour.(意义应当从场景\运用\语境这些与语言行为紧密相联的成分的角度来进行研究.)4.behaviorism(行为主义论): Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. (言者发出该形式的场景和它在听者身上所起的反应.)Sense(意义) is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.(意义指的是语言形式的内在含义.)Reference(指陈) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.(指陈指的是语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物,是语言成分和非语言成分的经验世界之间的关系.)Synonymy(同义现象) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms(同义词).(同义现象是指意义的相同或极为相近.意义相同的词称为同义词.)1.Dialectal synonys(方言同义词)2.Stylistic synonys(文体同义词)3.Synonys that differin their emotive or evaluative meaning(情感或评价意义存在差异的同义词)4.Collocational synonys(搭配同义词)5.Semantically different synonys(语义上存在差异的同义词)Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms(反义词).1.Gradable antonyms(等级反义词)2.Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)3. Relational oppsites(关系反义词)第六章:Pragmatics(语用学): It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.(语用学是研究某一语言的使用者如何利用句子而达成到成功的交际.)What essentically distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.(语义学和语用学的区别就在于意义的研究中是否考虑到语境的因素.)Context(语境): a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constitude knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.(一般认为语境是由言者和听者的共享知识构成的.)Austin s new model of speech acts: 1.locutionary act(言内行为) 2.illocutionary act(言外行为) 3.perlocutionary act(言后行为).Searle s classification of speech acts:1.assertives / representatives(陈述类): stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.(陈述/描述,说出说话人认为正确的东西.)Eg: ①I think the film is moving. ②I m certain I have never seen the man before.2.directives(指令类): trying to get the hearer to do sth.(试图让听话人做某事.)Eg: I order you to leave right now.3.commissive(承诺类): committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.(对未来某行为的承诺.)4.expressives(表达类): expressing the speaker s psychological state about sth.(表达感情或态度 心里状态 )Eg: I m sorry for being late.5.declarations(宣告类): bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs.(通过说出某事带来立即的变化.)Eg: You re fired.Four maxims of Cooperative Principle(合作原则):1.the maxim of quantity(数量准则): ①Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange)( 为当前会话 提供足够信息) ②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息.)2.the maxim of quality(质量准则): ①Do not say what you believe to be false.(不说假话) ②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(不说缺乏足够证据的话)3.the maxim of relation(关系准则): Be relevant(要有相关性)4.the maxim of manner(方式准则): ①Avoid obscurity of expression.(避免表达艰涩) ②Avoid ambiguity.(避免歧义) ③Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity)(简洁). ④Be orderly.(有条理)第七章:Morphological and syntactic change(形态和句法变化):1.Change in agreement rule( 一致关系 规则的变化)2.Change in negation rule(否定过则的变化)3.Process of simplification(简化过程)4.Loss of inflections(曲折变化的丢失)Vocabulary change(词汇变化):1.Addition of new words(新词的增加): ①Coinage(创新词) ②Clipped words(缩略词) ③Blending(紧缩法) ④Acronyms(词首字母缩略词) ⑤Back-formation(逆构词法) ⑥Functional shift(功能转换) ⑦Borrowing(借用)2.Loss of word(词的丢失)3.Changes in the meaning of words(词义的变化): ①Widening of meaning(词义的变大) ②Narrowing of meaning(词义的缩小) ③Meaning shift(词义的转换)Some recent trends(一些最近的趋势):1.Moving towards greater informality(更趋向于非正式化)2.The influence of American English(美国英语的影响)3.The influence of science and technology(科学技术的影响):①space travel②computer and internet language③ecology(生态学)Causes of the language change:1.the rapid development of science and technology.(科学技术的快速发展)2.social and political changes(社会和政治的变化)3.The way children acquire the language(儿童语言习得) provides a basic cause of change.4.economy of memory(记忆经济化)第八章:Sociolinguistics(社会语言学) is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.(社会语言学是语言的次领域,是研究语言和社会的关系以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系.)Varieties of language:1.Dialectal varieties(方言变体):①Regional dialect(地域方言):口音是方言的重要特征②Sociolect(社会方言): sociolect is a linguistic characteristic of a particular social class.(带有社会阶层特征的语言变体)③Language and gender(语言和性别)④Language and age(语言和年龄)⑤Idiolect(个人语言)⑥Ethnic dialect(种族语言)2.Register(语域): register , in a restricted sense, referring to the variety of language related to one s oppupation.(语域,与某人职业有关的语言变体.) The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.(与场合相符合的类型就是语域.)3.Degree of formality(正式度)Five stages of formality(Martin Joos):1.intimate(亲密的), 2.casual(随意的), 3.consultative(客气的), 4.formal, 5.frozen(冷淡的).
解放军文职招聘考试2012年高考英语汉语言试卷7-解放军文职人员招聘-军队文职考试-红师教育
发布时间：2017-06-24 22:15:24上海师范大学2010年硕士研究生入学考试试题（答案）专业名称 语言学及应用语言学（050102）科目名称（代码） 古代汉语与语言学概论（840）（注意：答案必须写在统一印制的答题纸上，否则不给分）一、概念解释（每小题5分，共40分。）01、十三经注疏02、反切03、拼音文字04、递归性05、社会方言06、洋泾浜07、第二语言08、水平测试二、简答题（每小题10分，共40分。）09、语言是一个符号系统，请举例阐述符号的性质、符号的构成，以及语言符号的特点。10、聚合规则体现了语言的系统性，因此语言系统的发展也表现出聚合规则的发展，请结合汉语演变的事实加以说明。11、在印欧语系的语言中具有丰富的形态，通过词形变化来表示各类语法范畴，请举例说明语法范畴的概念，以及主要的类型。12、社会语言学是应用语言学的重要分支之一，请阐述社会语言学的性质和特点，并说明中国社会语言学的主要研究领域。三、论述题（每小题20分，共40分。）13、语序是汉语表示语法关系的主要手段之一，也是汉语的特点之一，从汉语发展演变来看，古今汉语的语序有一定的变化，请举例说明这些差异表现在那些方面。14、构建音位系统是音系学研究的重要领域，请结合现代汉语（包括方言）的音位系统的实例，说明音位的概念、归纳音位的依据和方法、音位变体的类型。四、综合分析题（第15题14分，第16题16分，共30分。）15、句读下列古文，并译成现代汉语白话文（共12分）：（1）句读：臣聞地廣者粟多國大者人眾兵彊則士勇是以太山不讓土壤故能成其大河海不擇細流故能就其深王者不卻眾庶故能明其德是以地無四方民無異國四時充美鬼神降福此五帝三王之所以無敵也今乃棄黔首以資敵國卻賓客以業諸侯使天下之士退而不敢西向裹足不入秦此所謂藉寇兵而齋盜糧者也夫物不產於秦可寶者多士不產於秦而願忠者眾今逐客以資敵國損民以益讎內自虛而外樹怨於諸侯求國無危不可得也16、阅读下列古文，解释打点的词、句的意义或用法（共16分）古之人日： 一夫不耕，或受之饥，一女不织，或受之寒。 生之有时，[1] [2]而用之亡度，则物力必屈。古之治天下，至歼至悉也，故其畜积足恃。今背[3] [4] [5] [6] [7]本而趋末，食者甚众，是天下之大残也。淫侈之俗，日日以长，是天下之大[8] [9] [10] [11] [12]贼也。残贼公行，莫之或止，大命将泛，莫之振救。生之者甚少，而靡之者[13] [14] [15]甚多，天下财产，何得不蹷 ?（贾谊 论积贮疏）[16]（注：本题也必须做在答题纸上，按打点的词或句子下面的编号次序写出答案。）
解放军文职招聘考试 新编简明英语语言学教程笔记1-解放军文职人员招聘-军队文职考试-红师教育
发布时间：2017-05-21 16:15:44新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, it s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett提出了语言的识别特征design features3.the word language preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it"s hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once.6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----it s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it"s a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics---It s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the arbitrariness of language is a rose by any other name would smell as sweet .3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language.传统语法是规定性的，研究 高级 书面语。4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? whyModern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?Speech enjoys for the following reasons:⑴Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.⑵A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.⑶speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.6.how is Saussure s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky s ?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyTwo linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）Chapter Two Phonology一、定义.元音VowelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels..辅音ConsonantsThe sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants..最小对立对Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone..互补分布complementary distributionTwo allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.14.爆破音stopsWhen a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]二、知识点1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.3.Phonetic 组成⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed⑵Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学⑶Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].三、问答题1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Auditory- studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic- studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.2.how are the English consonants classified?By place of articulation and By manner of articulation3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?Phonetics description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?Minimal pair two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.Minimal set a group of sound combinations with the above feature.By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?Broad transcription one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.Chapter Three Morphology一、定义1.词素MorphemeThe basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.6.曲折词缀inflectional affixesThe manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.7.派生词缀Derivational affixesThe manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.Chapter Four Syntax一、定义.表层结构S-structureA level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement..深层结构D-structureA level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.二、知识点2.我们把syntax的学习看作 a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence.3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.12.短语类型Noun Phrase NPVerb Phrase VPPreposition Phrase PPAdjective Phrase APChapter 5 Semantics一、定义1.命名论The naming theoryThe naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.2.意念论The conceptualist viewIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer . this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.5.意义SenseIt s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it s abstract and de-contextualized.6.所指意义ReferenceIt means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.7.同义词SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.8.多义词PolysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.9.同音(形)异义HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.10.同音异义HomophonesIt refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.11.同形异义HomographsIt refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.12.上下义关系HyponymyIt refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.13.反义词AntonymyIt s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.二、知识点1.Major views of meaning study:The naming Theory-----希腊Scholar PlatoThe conceptualism-----观点代表人是John Firth,但Bloomfield阐述更有说服力The Conceptualist view----Ogden和Richards用classic semantic triangle ofsignificanceThe Behaviorism-----英国Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和 Jill故事阐明The naming theory的局限性:⑴It s only applicable to Nouns only.⑵Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that don t exist in the real world. sense2.Lexical meaning reference3.主要的意义关系 major sense relationsSynonymy ;Antonymy; Hyponymy; Polysemy; homonymySynonymy:(1)Dialectal synonyms synonyms used in different regional dialectsSynonyms(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style 分类(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning(4)Semantically different synonyms (5)collocational synonyms5.Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality.6. some synonyms differ in their collocation.例子: Accuse .of charge . with rebuke .for sour milkRotten tomatoes addled eggs rancid bacon or butter7. a polysemic word, i.e, a word with several meaning, is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word. complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.8.According naming theory words are just names or labels for things.9.Every utterance occurs in a particular spatiotemporal situation, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance ,the speaker and the hearer, the action they are performing at the time, the various objects and event existed in the situation.10.the contextulist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield, who drew on behaviourist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.11 Homophones when two words are identical in soundRain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leekHomonymy Homographs when two words are identical in spellingBow v. /bow n. tear v./ tear n lead v./lead n.Complete homonyms when two words are identical in both spelling and sound.例子Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.三、问答题1.how are sense and reference related?Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it s abstract and de-contextualized.Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.2.in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.3.what s grammaticality? what might take a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?Grammaticality---the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at allChapter 6 pragmatics一 、定义1.语境ContextThe notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.2.言语行为理论Speech act theoryIt s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question what do we do when using language?The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.10.合作原则Cooperative PrincipleIt s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.11.会话含义Conversational implicaturesAccording to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。二、知识点1.语用学的几个重要的理论⑴言语行为理论Speech act theory由英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives和行为句performatives在区分叙述句和行为句之后，他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为例子：you have left the door wide open.Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean.Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door.Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.※在这三种行为中，语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣cos this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer.⑵会话原则CP 逻辑哲学家Paul Grice提出;2. 合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle数量 the maxim of Quantity----- Make your contribution as informative as required; Do not make your contribution more informative than is required质量the maxim of Quality ----Do not say what you believe to false. Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence关系 the maxim of relation----- be relevant方式 the maxim of manner---- Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity; Be brief/be orderly.4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.5.语境中听者与说话者shared knowledge is of two types:The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.Chapter 7 Historical linguistics一、定义1. lexical and semantic changeGenerally there are mainly two possible ways of lexical change: the addition and loss of words,which often reflects the introduction of new objects and notions in social practices. Addition of new wordsCoinage:a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose,mostly for new things and objectsClipped words:clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrasesBlending :A process of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words.Acronym:A word created by combining the initials of a number of words.Back-formation:A process by which new words are formed by taking away he suffix of an existing word.Functional shift:words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes,which is also called conversion.Borrowing :when different cultures come into contact ,words are often borrowed from one language to another .Loss of words :one of the most common cause for the loss of lexical items is the discontinuation of the object they name.Semantic changes:widening ,narrowing,shift in meaningSemantic broadening :The process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historical earlier denotation.缩小less general or inclusiveSemantic narrowing:on the other hand,semantic change has narrowed the meaning of some words which are still used in modern English.Semantic shift :It s a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning.二、知识点2.Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.5.one of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in the Vowel Change.8.the most wide-spread morphological change in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.10.in general, linguistic change in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language is more noticeable than that in other systems of the grammar.11.the ancient adjective agreement rule was dropped out of English mainly because the inflectional endings to show agreement in case, number and gender became distinct.13.Language change is essentially a matter of change in the Grammar.15.The most widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.※语义的变化Semantic Change 这一节非常重要32.It s comparative in the sense that it aims at developing and elucidating the genetic relationships that exist between and among langauges, classifying related languages into language families,and reconstructin their ancestral languages.what follows is a very brief account focusing on how historical linguists established genetic relationships of languages,and in particular,the Indo-Europeean language family.34.To identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree,and to reconstruct the protolanguage,the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.35. A language family is established by the use of a method known as Comparative reconstruction.36.Reliable linguistic signs of family relationships include systematic phonological, morphological, and semantic resemblances among the vocabulary items of different languages.41.With the application of the comparative method,Persia,northern part of india were able to reconstruct the grammar of a single origin known as proto-Indo-European,from which a number of subfamilies of European and Indian subcontinental languages evloved.三、问答题1.characterized the nature of language changeAll living languages change with time.language change is not only universal and inevitable,but also systematic,extensive,on-going,and gradual.Language change is a rule-governed behavior,involving all components of the grammar.2. list the major causes of language changeSound assimilation,Rule simplification and internal borrowing⑴语音同化Sound assimilationAssimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes.⑵规则简化Rule simplificationIt s a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.the same kind of analogic change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular english.⑶内部借用Internal BorrowingIt s motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.it represents a continual readjustment of a language s grammatical system as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another.⑷规则细化 ElaborationIt occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.⑸社会因素Social triggers⑹文化转移Cultural transmission⑺儿童语法接近成人语法Children s approximation toward the adult grammar.A generally accepted view among language acquisition scholars is that children acquire their native language not through formal instrucation of grammatical rules, they often construct their personal information they hear.Chapter 8Sociolinguistics一、定义1.The relatedness between language and societyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning. It is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently.2.Dialectal carietiesRegional dialect:is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.Sociolect :A variety of language used by people belonging to a prticular social class.Language and genderLanguage and ageIdiolect=Personal dialect:A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional,social,and stylistic variation,in one form or another.Ethnic Dialect :It refers to a phenomenon that within a society speech variation may come about cos of different ethnic backgrounds.3.Register :the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:field of discourse,tenor of discourse and mode of discourse7.双言现象DiglossiaA sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community,each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation.12.双语BilingualismIt refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.21.语域变体Register Varieties=Situational DialectsRegisters are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations,in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users.24. 社会语言学SociolinguisticsIt s the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language with in socical context.二、知识点1.Sociolinguists are concerned with the social singificance of language variation and language use in different speech communities including regional,ethnic and social groups.2.In sociolinguistic studies,speakers are treated as memebers of social groups.3.Social groups may be defined in a number of ways besides regionally.it may distinguish itself from rest of the community by its distinct ethnic affiliation.20.Diglossia现象存在⑴mostly in Arabic-speaking counties,⑵Modern Greek,Swiss German and Haitian Creole.⑶in Paraguay,spanish as the high variety and local Indian language Guarani as the low variety.21.Bilingualism现象存在⑴Canada: English and French⑵Finland: Finnish and Swedish⑶Belgium: French and Flemish Dutch22.Most bilingual communities have one thing in common,that s a fairly clear functional differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situation known as domains.23.An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less priviledged population that has experienced form of social isolation,such as racial discrimination or segregation.24.The most widespread and most familiar ethnic variety of the english langauge is Black English.三、问答题1. how to distinguish a particular register from other registers?⑴distinctive words⑵using words or phrases in a particular way.⑶speical grammatical constructions,such as scientific language,or legal language.2. distinction between Bilingualism and Diglossia.Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used in a speech community;in a diglossic community,two varieties of language are used for different situations,one being more standard and higher,and used for more formal matters,the other less prestigious,used for colloquial situations.3. 黑人英语的特点⑴ one of the most prominent phonological features of black english is the simplification of a consonant cluster at the end of a word dropping the word-final phoneme.e.g. desk pronounced as/des/, told pronounced as /tou/;⑵one of the syntactic feature of black english is the absence of the copula,such as they mine , you crazy . Copula deletion as such occurs in some other english dialects,as well as in language like Arabic,Russian and chinese;⑶the double negation construction with sentence like I donot know nobody .黑人英语的disinctive feature persis not for racial,but for social,educationa and economic reasons.4.列举女性言语和男性言语相异的方面List several ways of speech of women and men differ from each other.⑴Women tend to use more presigious forms,more polite and indirect language,and more specific color terms than their male counterparts.⑵Women use more questions than declarative statements than males.6.Why is syntax regarded as a system of rules?As a major component of grammar,syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical setences.A sentence is considered grammatical when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.if,on the other hand,a sentence violates a rule according to which words are organized,then native speakers will judge it to be an impossible sentence of that langauge.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a langauge speaker.For any natural language,it"s the set of rules that makes it possible for the speakers to produce,comprehend and memorize the vase number of sentences of their native languageChapter 12 language and the brain一、定义1. Cerebral CortexThe outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.接受所有感觉器官传来的信息，是人的认知能力所存在的区域。2.大脑侧化Brain LateralizationThe localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.认知机能和感知机能位于大脑的某一半球。3.语言侧化Linguistic lateralizationHemispheric specialization or dominance for language.4.两耳分听Dichotic ListeningA research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.5.关键期the critical periodAn early period of one s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain laterlization for language functions.6. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis假设A theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.人们看世界的方式完全或部分地由他们母语的结构决定，7.自我交际Interpersonal communicationThe process of using language within the individual to facilitate one s own thought and aid the formulation and manipulation of concepts.语言使用者本人用语言促进自己的思维和帮助形成和使用概念的过程。8.无声言语Subvocal SpeechA term used to refer to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other.用于指语言和思维是同一或近乎相同的.9.神经元NeuronsLying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells called Neurons.10.脑半球HemispheresThe brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemisphere.11.Broca s area French Surgeon: Paul BrocaThe language centre in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere is know as Broca s area.12.语言决定论Linguistic determinismWhorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language, or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.13.语言相对论Linguistic relativismIt refers to the belief that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background.It s hypothesis proposed by an American linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf concerning language and thought.二、知识点1.Three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language:Broca s area. =ExpressionWernicke s area=UnderstandingAngular gyrus. =converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form, vice versa2.The human brain is the most complicated organ of the body.3.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain---Cerebral cortex.4.The Cortex is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary actions6.The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational.7.Most individuals, the left hemisphere is dominant for language, regardless of handiness.8.Evidence in support of lateralization for language in left hemisphere comes from researches in Dichotic listening tasks.两耳分听证明了左半球的侧化。9.Righ hear advantage shows the left hemisphere is not superior for processing all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that"s where language centers reside.右耳优势证明了大脑左半球并不是处理所有声音时都有优势，只是处理本质上是语言的声音时有优势：大脑左侧负责语言，语言中枢就位于这一部分。12.Angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke s area.this area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, for the comprehension of written language and require connections between visual and speech organs.13.When we listen,the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke s area.14.The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one s life extending from about two to puberty.17. 早期学者针对语言和思想的观点⑴Plato suggested that thought was the soul s discourse with itself.柏拉图认为语言和思想相互统一的。⑵Aristotle, who argued that mankind could not have the same languages and that languages were but signs of psychological experiences.亚里士多德认为语言只是人类体现的符号。The debate between them, one being mentalist, other empiricist.两个人的观点向背。一个是心灵主义，另一个是经验主义。⑶Watson, thinking involved the same motor activities used in speaking, Bloomfield, thinking was a system of movements that had been reduced from actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible.美国的Watson承袭了Plato的观点，Bloomfield提出了近似的观点。21.Major functions of language⑴ a means of interpersonal communication.人际交流⑵ a means of intrapersonal communication.自我交流三、问答题1.in what cortical regions are speech and language thought to be localized?In what have come to be known as Broca s area, Wernicke s area and angular gyrus, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain.2.how In your opinion does language relate thought and culture?Language doesn t determine the way the speaker perceives the world, but largely functions as a means by which information can be stored and received, by which a culture transmits its belief, values and norms, and by which the speaker interacts other members of the cultures.3.Describe the processes of language perception, comprehension and production.It s been proposed that the brain activity involved in hearing, understanding and then saying a word would follow a definite pattern,when we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke s area, this signal is then transferred to Broca s area where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is then sent to the motor area controlling the vocal tract to physically articulate the word.When we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke s area and sent to Broca s area which determines the details of their form and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition一、定义1. Language acquisitionLanguage acquisition refers to the development of the Child s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.3.行为主义学习理论Behaviourist learning theoryIt s a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner s verbal behaviour is conditioned or reinforced through association between a stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition.4.interlanguage 中介语Proposed by S.Pit Corder and Larry Selinker ,the concept of interlanguage was established as learners independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language,but a continuum of approximation from his mother language to the target language.The three important characteristics:systematicity,permeability,fossilization18.It s normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an opening vocabulary of more than 2.000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.20.three main different theories concerning how language is learnedA:the behaviorist traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.B:the innatist the linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are bioligically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking.C:the interactionist the interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between thr human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops三、问答题1. what are the major individual factors for SLA（第二语言习得）?The acquisition of a second language is dependent on a combination of factors.the rate and ultimate success in SLA are also affected by individual learner factors.(1)The early years of one s life before puberty;(2)They must have strong motivation, instrumental or integrative;(3)The extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community, that is , acculturation.(4)Learner s personality.2.Different theories of child language acquisition have been advanced, discuss two contrasting views with reference to the behaviorist learning model and the inatist biological model.论述行为主义学习理论和生物先天论这两种相对立的观点。The Behaviourist view:language acquisition is a process of habit formation. Language is learned through stimulus and response. Reinforcement of selected responses is the key to understanding language development.Children learn to produce correct sentences because they are positively reinforced when they say something right and negatively reinforced when they say something wrong.语言习得是一个习惯培养的过程。语言是通过刺激与反应学习的。对有选择的反应的强化是理解语言发展的关键。儿童学会正确的使用语言，是因为他们正确的言语是得到积极强化而错误的言语得到消极强化。The inatist view:language acquisition is the species---specific property of human beings, children are born with an innate ability to acquire language ,they are predisposed to develop their native language along a universal, predetermined route through similar stages. They go about acquiring the grammar of their native language using principles unique to language acquisition.语言习得是人类特有的特性。儿童生来就具有天生的学习语言的能力，他们生来就具有习得本族语的能力，其习得过程沿着一条普遍、自然的轨道，并经历相似的阶段。他们使用语言习得的特有天赋习得本族语的语法。3.Discuss one major factor which contributes to the difficulties most second language learners encounter.论述导致大多数第二语言学习者学习困难的一个主要因素。It has been suggested by some SLA scholars that learning difficulties confronting adultL2 learners arise from the fact that for most people a second language is learned in a formal setting, rather han acquired in a natural environment .Language acquisition is contrasted with language learning on the ground that acquisition is subconscious, focusing on meaning, which learning is conscious, focusing on form. Its argued that conscious knowledge of linguistic forms does not ensure acquisition of the rules, that is , does not ensure an immediate guidance for actual performance.习得是无意识的，注重的是意义；学习是由意识的，注重的是形式。4.Enumerate some causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition.列举第二语言习得中出现系统性错误的一些原因Some major causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition include(1)Interference from the mother tongue;母语干扰(2)Interlingual interference within the target language;目标语的语际语干扰(3)overgeneralization.过度概括具体分析Interference from the mother tongue:Mother tongue interference is found at the level of pronunciation, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and meaning, and can be predicated by contrasting the grammatical or other systems of the native and target languages.Interlingual interference:Interlingual interference，or cross-association, occurs when the learner mixes rules and patterns of the target language and produce hybrid structures.Overgeneralization：The use of previously available strategies in new situations, i.e. the application of a particular pattern or rule of the target language in many other linguistic situations课本外练习资料中的考点内容一、定义7.深层结构Deep structureIt s an abstract level representing the basis for the meaning of a sentence. it consists of a structure generated by phrase structure rules and contains lexical items from the lexcion, but no transformations have yet applied to it.12.人际交流Intrapersonal communicationIt refers to one of the two major functions that language serves. as a means of intrapersonal communication, language facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.二、问答题1.why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?Because in Modern English there are no longer the elaborate morphological system used in Old English, such as the case marking system, to help to indicate grammatical relations. therefore, it is no longer possible to identify the functional roles of nouns by their inflectional endings.The functional notions of subject and object have to be indicated largely by the syntactic position of nouns in a linear order, resulting in a system with stricter constraints on word order.2.what features of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system.Language is basically vocal.Language is arbitrary.Language is used for human communication.3.what s Broca s area and what will happen if any damage is inflicted upon it?⑴In 1861, a French surgeon and anatomist Paul Broca discovered that somewhere in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere had something to do with speech difficulty. this place is known as Broca s area.⑵Any damage to sites in the left cerebral hemisphere will result in a patient s language disorder, whereas destruction of corresponding sites in the right hemisphere leave linguistic capacities intact.⑶Therefore if any damage is inflicted upon this area, it will result in word finding difficulties and problems with syntax.4.sate briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study?⑴The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes.⑵Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.⑶Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.⑷It s recognized that children acquired their native language without explicit learning, which a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2learner.⑸A rule can be learned before it is internalized(i.e. acquired),but having learned a rule does not necessarily preclude having to acquire it later.6.what is the nature of language change in historical linguistics?语言的本质在历史语言学中的含义？⑴language change is inevitable.⑵as a general rule, language change is universal, continuous,to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.⑶language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantics.⑷when language change is in progress, phonemes, morphemes, words, and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost, or altered, and meanwhile, the meaning of individual lexical items or strings of words may expand ,narrow,or shift.9.语言的两种功能two functions of language?Two major functions are interpersonal and intrapersonal communication.人际交流和自我交流⑴ language functions as a means of interpersonal communication when language users use it to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another or to control each other s behavior.⑵ it functions as a means of intrapersonal communication when it is used as a means of facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.10.为什么说结构树形图比线形图可更好的说明句子的层次性？why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure in analyzing the constituent relationship among linguistic elements?⑴in addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.⑵for example, the phrase the old men and women may have two interpretation. The adject old may modify the noun men ,or the women . or both. linear order analysis cannot tell this difference, so it s ambiguous. the constituent of tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clear.Chapter 9 language and culture1.what is culture?In a broad sense,means integrated pattern of human knowledge,belief,and behavior that is both a result of an integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations.In a narrow sense ,culture may refer to local or specific practice,beliefs or customs.2.the relationship between language and culturesince the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people s culture are imperceptibly encoded and transmitted in the language of people,it is extremely difficult to separate the two.on the one hand ,language as an intergral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world.it both experesses and embodies cultural reality. On the other ,language,as a system of spoken or written symbols used by people in a shared culture to communicate with each other,reflects and affects a culture s way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence,which also facillitates the development pof this language at the same time.3.the significance of culture teaching and learningLanguage as the keystone is tightly intertwined with culture. Learning a language is inseparable from learning its culture. We need to learn enough about the language"s culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the linguistic competence but also the pragmatic or communicative competence as well. This is of great significance in learning a foreign or second language.4.interculture communicationAlso known as cross-cultural communication ,is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.It is frequently used to refer to communication between people from different cultures ,which implies a comparison between cultures.As a newly-established discipline,intercultural communication makes multidisciplinary study of politeness across cultures in great detail. It helps to bridge the gap between both cultural and linguistic differences.As the world is becoming a global village ,its significance becoming more and more self-evident.
