军队文职考研数学_军队文职考试

解放军文职招聘考试考研短文写作总论-解放军文职人员招聘-军队文职考试-红师教育

（1）考官阅卷规律考研作文的读者是阅卷考官，因此充分掌握考官的阅读和评分心理是我们制胜的一大法宝。那么，阅卷考官在评分过程中都会呈现出什么样的特点呢？具体的注意事项总结如下：（2）英文作文的行文特点和思维模式美国一位著名的语言学家Kaplan曾经在20世纪70年代作过一项关于在美国的本土学生、亚洲学生和阿拉伯学生在写英文作文中体现出的思维方式及其背后的文化影响的调查，并发表了一篇著名的论文，提出了三种思维模式引发的写作模型。虽然考研作文的阅卷考官们大部分都是中国人，但是他们的英语水平都很高、造诣也很深，对于英文的行文规律了如指掌。因此，考生要尽量学会英文的写作模式，尤其要重视主题句的作用。简单来说，英文议论文的行文有以下特点：1、结构分明、意图明确。2、扣紧主题、切勿离题。3、句子不必过长，严防语法错误。4、适量引用名人名言、成语谚语。5、用清晰的语言指出问题。6、使用更多的连接词。（3）图画作文和图表作文的写作策略我们认为，接下来几年的研究生考试中，图画作文出现的概率远远大于图表作文。考生要重视图画作文的能力训练，但是也不能完全忽略图表作文。下文将具体阐述应对这两种作文形式的要点和攻略。一、图画+提纲作文图画作文往往给出的是一幅简洁明了的照片、图片或者漫画，要求考生将图画转变成为文字形式。尽管中国学生从小学开始就接受了看图作文的系统训练，但是我们不能因此掉以轻心。首先，英文看图作文和中文看图作文的模式和思维体系是不同的。其次，考研作文的图画选择都是含有丰富的寓意的，对考生提出了 把握寓意、联系现实、深刻思考、丰富表达 等一系列较高的要求。我们认为攻克图画作文的关键在于仔细分析、观察细节。虽然考研写作时间非常紧张，但是花2-3分钟细心观察图画是具有决定性意义的。观察图画的同时可以在草稿纸上作相应的笔记：1、写出你认为图画中反映的是一个什么样的社会现象和问题；2、简单写下图画中的一些细节，如2001年作文中的蜡烛烛光是以一个笑脸的形式体现出来的。迅速分析这些细节，标明哪些是重点、哪些是次重点、哪些无关紧要，在写作的时候便能够自如把握需要详细描述的信息。3、查漏补缺。检查是否有遗漏的信息，因为越是简单的图画就越容易使人忽略一些细节。例如在2005年的图画中，如果仔细观察可以发现，是大儿子把父亲踢了出来，而其他几个儿女是做防守动作，防止老父被踢到自己的球门。当然在发现遗漏的信息之后也需要进一步判断是否需要将这一信息加入自己的作文中。需要说明的是，我们这里指的提纲不是考题中已经给出的提纲，而是根据考题的提纲写出自己的行文思路、大意和要点等。接下来就是正式的写作步骤。我们来详细分析一下三段的具体写作要点（我们在本书的 高分句型 和 万能模版 部分将分别提供对每一个段落行之有效的句型和模版）：1、第一段主要是描述图画中的信息和表达的含义。考生在第一句话中应该开门见山地说明图画中谈论的是什么事情；第二句话进一步描述细节、但不要用于第一句话相同的表达方式；第三句话点明图画的象征意义。注意点：如果图中有中文说明的话，要尽量将中文句子译出或者以其他方式表达出来。但切忌生硬地翻译中文，如1998年作文中的那首打油诗就没有必要翻译出来。2、第二段的全文的重点，一般都是要求具体分析图画中暗含的社会现象。考生在提出一个总论点之后，可以通过 firstly, secondly, thirdly 等形式提出分支论点，进行详细阐发。在论证过程中可以采用并列论证、对比论证、举例论证、逻辑论证等方式。注意点：第二段和第三段的开头最好写一个主题句，既可以防止离题，又符合英文写作的习惯。同时，全文的段与段之间、句与句之间做好衔接和过渡的工作。二、图表+ 提纲作文考研作文已经出现过的图表作文包括1997年的柱状图（bar chart）和饼状图（pie chart），1999年的曲线图（line chart / line graph）。其它常见的图表还包括表格（table）、流程图（flow chart）等。在进行写作之前，我们同样要观察和分析图表。此时我们需要带着问题去观察：这个图表或者这组图表是关于什么内容的；图表中有哪些具体项目组成、分别有什么作用和含义；图表中有哪些重要数据（可以用铅笔在图中圈出）；如何分析这些数据，是把重点放在数据本身，还是重点分析数据变化的趋势。如果是一组图表，还要分析彼此之间有什么样的关联；如果从图表中得出一个中心思想或者主题句。接下来的几个写作步骤可以参考上文关于图画作文的分析，具体包括列提纲和如何组织三段论、以及最后的检查和修改等。此外，针对图表作文的特点，我们还提出了以下一个注意点：1、不同的图表本身就暗示了考生应该关注的分析点。如柱状图和曲线图重点在于指出变化趋势，而饼状图则侧重于各个部分的数值和所占百分比、即体现了整体和局部的关系，流程图在于过程和各个阶段的不同情况。以上四种图表一般都会有说明文字，如横坐标和纵坐标上的说明等，需要格外关注。表格的难度相对要更高，需要考生自己找出重点数据、并仔细观察数据来发现变化和趋势等。无论哪种形式的图表，考生万勿简单地罗列数据和信息，因为考研作文考察的重点是分析能力。2、要密切关注图表上一些重点区位，如果曲线的峰值、谷值、突然的转折，曲线的交汇点。其它图表中数值的极值，数据或者百分比大幅度增加或者减少的地方等等，这些往往都是图表暗含的中心意思所在。3、图表写作的事态采用一般现在时，如果题目中有具体关于过去和将来时间的提示，则根据情况采用过去时和将来时。4、图表的描述也有一些固定的表达法，考生需要在平时练习中积累（本书 高分句型 部分也提供了丰富的表达法）。5、由于图表往往提供了比图画更加丰富的信息，考生需要提高鉴别分析信息的能力，找出最重要的数据。由于数据繁多，也更容易遗漏，所以最后的查漏补缺工作也显得尤其重要。（4）写作注意事项u词汇英语写作讲究用词准确而且正式。同时，英语的词汇非常丰富，一个词语通常都有许多同义词和近义词。考生如果平时注意积累并加以练习，就能够熟练在考试中运用。下面我们举一些英语词汇变化的例子。help out assist; set up to establish; go up increase;cut down reduce; find out determine; look into investigate;bring up raise; come up with create; go up and down fluctuategood considerable; get obtain; a lot of numerous;things that will happen consequencesu语法英文写作非常讲究语法，尤其是考研作文作为正式文体，需要注意以下几点小细节：1、尽量少用缩写形式。如don t, can t, won t写做do not, cannot, will not等。2、用更加正式的否定形式。如not any写做no, not much 写做 little, not many 写做few等。例如：He did notsay anywords.He said nowordsThere are not manychances available.There are fewchances available.3、尽量少用 etc. , and so on 等表达方式。例如：Activities include dancing, singing, etc.Activities include dancing, singing, and other fun stuff.4、尽量把副词和动词放在一起。例如：Consequentlywe may arrive at the conclusion thatWe may consequentlyarrive at the conclusion thatu标点英语中没有顿号，在汉语需要顿号的情况下可以用逗号。汉语中的引言通常都是： 的格式，而英语中不用冒号，用逗号，如, .u常用程度和语句副词常用的程度副词包括：absolutely, almost, awfully, completely, considerably, deeply, entirely, exactly, extremely, fairly, greatly, hardly, immensely, increasingly, more and more, much, nearly, partly, perfectly, profoundly, quite, rather, scarcely, slightly, somehow, somewhat, thoroughly, to some extent, utterly, very.常用语句副词包括：actually, admittedly, certainly, clearly, definitely, evidently, fortunately, frankly, honestly, luckily, more importantly, naturally, surprisingly, obviously, perhaps, preferably, probably, possibly, strangely, superficially, surely, technically, theoretically, undeniably, unexpectedly, unfortunately.u常用逻辑连接词因果关系： and so ; another important factor/reason ; as a consequence; as a result; as; because; because of; being that; consequently; due to; for the reason that; for the same reason; for; hence; for this reason; in consequence; in that ; in view of; owing to; since; so; so that ; the reason seems obvious; there are about ; therefore; thus; obviously; evidently并列关系：and; also; as well as; both and ; either or ; neither nor ; not only but also ; in the same way; too序列关系: first , second , third , and so forth; A , B , C , and so forth; next; then; following this; at the same time; now; at this point; after; afterwards; subsequently; finally; previously; before this; simultaneously; concurrently; thus; therefore; hence; next; and then; soon递进关系：accordingly; as a popular saying goes ; as far as is concerned; at the same time; besides; even; further; furthermore; in addition; in order to ; in other words; in the first place , in the second place ; in this way; meanwhile; moreover; not only , but also ; not but ; lastly; for one thing , for another时空关系：afterwards; as soon as; at least; before; eventually; every; first; first of all; first and foremost; for a start; meanwhile; in the meantime; while; now; next; not until; later; formerly; previously; prior to; since then; since; subsequently; till; to begin with; to start with; when; then转折关系：yet; but; unless; despite that; in spite of; though; although; although this may be true; even so; even though; however; sometimes; once in a while; independent of; reckless of; regardless of条件关系：as long as; even if; even though; if it necessary; if not all; if possible; if so; if; lest; once; provided that; unless重复关系：in brief; as I have said; as I have noted; as has been noted; as is mentioned above比较关系：apart from; by the same token; compared with; in comparison with; in the same vein; like; likewise; rather than; similarly; similarly important; equally; when compared with; when in fact举例关系：a good example would be; for example; for instance; in this case; in anothercase; on this occasion; in this situation; take the case of; to demonstrate; to illustrate; accordingto; as an illustration; as for; as regards; as to; in particular; including; namely; notably; such as; like; take as an example; you may say对比关系：after all; as opposed to; balanced against; up against; vis a vis; where; conversely; on the one hand on the other hand ; contrary to; conversely unlike; different from this; however; in contrast; nevertheless; on the contrary; oppose to; whereas; while强调关系：definitely; extremely; obviously; absolutely; positively; naturally; surprisingly; always; forever; perennially; eternally; emphatically; never; unquestionably; without a doubt; certainly; surely; undeniably; without reservation; believe it or not; especially; particularly; in particular; specifically; in fact; as a matter of fact; actually; in deed; moreover; not to mention ; what is more important; notably; that is;总结关系：accordingly; altogether; as a result; consequently; hence; in one word; in brief; in short; in other words; in summary; on the whole; in conclusion;overall; the conclusion can be safely drawn that ; therefore; to conclude; to sum up; summing up; as I have shown; as I have said; hence; all in all（5）提高写作能力的整体策略和技巧众所周知， 一口吃不成一个大胖子 ，应对考研写作不仅仅需要考生在考试之前进行强化训练，更需要在平时坚持练习和积累。1、背诵范文背诵范文就是一个很好的方法，通过朗读和背诵，考生能够迅速掌握并牢记各种精彩词汇、词组和句型，更能够大大增强英语语感。而掌握语感是学会另一门语言的关键所在，也是一条捷径。2、扩大词汇量例如，我们可以查到 show 的同义词有：, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 等。conclude 的同义词有：, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,greatly 的同义词有：, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,我们可以发现这其中的很多词语都可以用到考研作文中。3、扩大阅读量。学习语言就要增大阅读量。考生可以在平时选取一些休闲类的英语读物用作准备考研的紧张生活中的一种调剂，如曾经风靡一时的 书虫 系列等。现在这类读物在书店中随处可见，非常容易买到。在阅读过程中，考生要做一个有心人，随时记下自己认为较好的词汇、词组和句型。此外，还可以多看看英语报纸杂志，不仅可以学到最新的词汇，也可以找到更多当前社会比较流行的话题，汲取不同的思路和观点，这些都与考研作文有很大的关联。现在这类出版物在国内也越来越多，比如21st Century, China Daily等报纸，国外的杂志像有名的Times, Newsweekly, Economist等也都能够较容易地买到过刊。不过我们不建议考生去读大部头的英文著作，一来消耗时间，二来大书中的词汇反而不如报纸杂志上的灵活生动、贴近生活。4、纠正中文思维5、考前作文复习步骤在自己搜集的资料基础上，多看多读多背，并尽量建立适合自己的各类作文模板。

解放军文职招聘考试2009年考研英语真题和答案-解放军文职人员招聘-军队文职考试-红师教育

发布时间：2017-06-14 23:00:022009年考研英语真题和答案Section I Use of EnglishDirections:Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)Research on animal intelligence always makes me wonder just how smart humans are. 1 the fruit-fly experiments described in Carl Zimmer s piece in the Science Times on Tuesday. Fruit flies who were taught to be smarter than the average fruit fly 2 to live shorter lives. This suggests that 3 bulbs burn longer, that there is an 4 in not being too terrifically bright.Intelligence, it 5 out, is a high-priced option. It takes more upkeep, burns more fuel and is slow 6 the starting line because it depends on learning a gradual 7 instead of instinct. Plenty of other species are able to learn, and one of the things they ve apparently learned is when to 8 .Is there an adaptive value to 9 intelligence? That s the question behind this new research. I like it. Instead of casting a wistful glance 10 at all the species we ve left in the dust I.Q.-wise, it implicitly asks what the real 11 of our own intelligence might be. This is 12 the mind of every animal I ve ever met.Research on animal intelligence also makes me wonder what experiments animals would 13 on humans if they had the chance. Every cat with an owner, 14 , is running a small-scale study in operant conditioning. we believe that 15 animals ran the labs, they would test us to 16 the limits of our patience, our faithfulness, our memory for terrain. They would try to decide what intelligence in humans is really 17 , not merely how much of it there is. 18 , they would hope to study a 19 question: Are humans actually aware of the world they live in? 20 the results are inconclusive.1. [A] Suppose [B] Consider [C] Observe [D] Imagine2. [A] tended [B] feared [C] happened [D] threatened3. [A] thinner [B] stabler [C] lighter [D] dimmer4. [A] tendency [B] advantage [C] inclination [D] priority5. [A] insists on [B] sums up [C] turns out [D] puts forward6. [A] off [B] behind [C] over [D] along7. [A] incredible [B] spontaneous [C]inevitable [D] gradual8. [A] fight [B] doubt [C] stop [D] think9. [A] invisible [B] limited [C] indefinite [D] different10. [A] upward [B] forward [C] afterward [D] backward11. [A] features [B] influences [C] results [D] costs12. [A] outside [B] on [C] by [D] across13. [A] deliver [B] carry [C] perform [D] apply14. [A] by chance [B] in contrast [C] as usual [D] for instance15. [A] if [B] unless [C] as [D] lest16. [A] moderate [B] overcome [C] determine [D] reach17. [A] at [B] for [C] after [D] with18. [A] Above all [B] After all [C] However [D] Otherwise19. [A] fundamental [B] comprehensive [C] equivalent [D] hostile20. [A] By accident [B] In time [C] So far [D] Better stillSection II Reading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts. Answer the questions below each text by choosing A, B, C or D. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (40 points)Text1Habits are a funny thing. We reach for them mindlessly, setting our brains on auto-pilot and relaxing into the unconscious comfort of familiar routine. Not choice, but habit rules the unreflecting herd, William Wordsworth said in the 19th century. In the ever-changing 21st century, even the word habit carries a negative connotation.So it seems antithetical to talk about habits in the same context as creativity and innovation. But brain researchers have discovered that when we consciously develop new habits, we create parallel synaptic paths, and even entirely new brain cells, that can jump our trains of thought onto new, innovative tracks.But don t bother trying to kill off old habits; once those ruts of procedure are worn into the hippocampus, they re there to stay. Instead, the new habits we deliberately ingrain into ourselves create parallel pathways that can bypass those old roads.The first thing needed for innovation is a fascination with wonder, says Dawna Markova, author of The Open Mind and an executive change consultant for Professional Thinking Partners. But we are taught instead to decide, just as our president calls himself the Decider. She adds, however, that to decide is to kill off all possibilities but one. A good innovational thinker is always exploring the many other possibilities.All of us work through problems in ways of which we re unaware, she says. Researchers in the late 1960 covered that humans are born with the capacity to approach challenges in four primary ways: analytically, procedurally, relationally (or collaboratively) and innovatively. At puberty, however, the brain shuts down half of that capacity, preserving only those modes of thought that have seemed most valuable during the first decade or so of life.The current emphasis on standardized testing highlights analysis and procedure, meaning that few of us inherently use our innovative and collaborative modes of thought. This breaks the major rule in the American belief system that anyone can do anything, explains M. J. Ryan, author of the 2006 book This Year I Will... and Ms. Markova s business partner. That s a lie that we have perpetuated, and it fosters commonness. Knowing what you re good at and doing even more of it creates excellence. This is where developing new habits comes in.21. The view of Wordsworth habit is claimed by beingA. casual B. familiar C. mechanical D. changeable.22. The researchers have discovered that the formation of habit can beA. predicted B. regulated C. traced D. guided23. ruts (in line one, paragraph 3) has closest meaning toA. tracks B. series C. characteristics D. connections24. Ms. Markova s comments suggest that the practice of standard testing ?A, prevents new habits form being formedB, no longer emphasizes commonnessC, maintains the inherent American thinking modelD, complies with the American belief system25. Ryan most probably agree thatA. ideas are born of a relaxing mindB. innovativeness could be taughtC. decisiveness derives from fantastic ideasD. curiosity activates creative mindsText 2It is a wise father that knows his own child, but today a man can boost his paternal (fatherly) wisdom or at least confirm that he s the kid s dad. All he needs to do is shell our $30 for paternity testing kit (PTK) at his local drugstore and another $120 to get the results.More than 60,000 people have purchased the PTKs since they first become available without prescriptions last years, according to Doug Fog, chief operating officer of Identigene, which makes the over-the-counter kits. More than two dozen companies sell DNA tests Directly to the public , ranging in price from a few hundred dollars to more than $2500.Among the most popular : paternity and kinship testing , which adopted children can use to find their biological relatives and latest rage a many passionate genealogists-and supports businesses that offer to search for a family s geographic roots .Most tests require collecting cells by webbing saliva in the mouth and sending it to the company for testing. All tests require a potential candidate with whom to compare DNA.But some observers are skeptical, There is a kind of false precision being hawked by people claiming they are doing ancestry testing, says Trey Duster, a New York University sociologist. He notes that each individual has many ancestors-numbering in the hundreds just a few centuries back. Yet most ancestry testing only considers a single lineage, either the Y chromosome inherited through men in a father s line or mitochondrial DNA, which a passed down only from mothers. This DNA can reveal genetic information about only one or two ancestors, even though, for example, just three generations back people also have six other great-grandparents or, four generations back, 14 other great-great-grandparents.Critics also argue that commercial genetic testing is only as good as the reference collections to which a sample is compared. Databases used by some companies don t rely on data collected systematically but rather lump together information from different research projects. This means that a DNA database may differ depending on the company that processes the results. In addition, the computer programs a company uses to estimate relationships may be patented and not subject to peer review or outside evaluation.26.In paragraphs 1 and 2 , the text shows PTK s ___________.[A]easy availability[B]flexibility in pricing[C] successful promotion[D] popularity with households27. PTK is used to __________.[A]locate one s birth place[B]promote genetic research[C] identify parent-child kinship[D] choose children for adoption28. Skeptical observers believe that ancestry testing fails to__________.[A]trace distant ancestors[B] rebuild reliable bloodlines[C] fully use genetic information[D] achieve the claimed accuracy29. In the last paragraph ,a problem commercial genetic testing faces is __________.[A]disorganized data collection[B] overlapping database building30. An appropriate title for the text is most likely to be__________.[A]Fors and Againsts of DNA testing[B] DNA testing and It s problems[C]DNA testing outside the lab[D] lies behind DNA testingText 3The relationship between formal education and economic growth in poor countries is widely misunderstood by economists and politicians alike progress in both area is undoubtedly necessary for the social, political and intellectual development of these and all other societies; however, the conventional view that education should be one of the very highest priorities for promoting rapid economic development in poor countries is wrong. We are fortunate that is it, because new educational systems there and putting enough people through them to improve economic performance would require two or three generations. The findings of a research institution have consistently shown that workers in all countries can be trained on the job to achieve radical higher productivity and, as a result, radically higher standards of living.Ironically, the first evidence for this idea appeared in the United States. Not long ago, with the country entering a recessing and Japan at its pre-bubble peak. The U.S. workforce was derided as poorly educated and one of primary cause of the poor U.S. economic performance. Japan was, and remains, the global leader in automotive-assembly productivity. Yet the research revealed that the U.S. factories of Honda Nissan, and Toyota achieved about 95 percent of the productivity of their Japanese countere pants a result of the training that U.S. workers received on the job.More recently, while examing housing construction, the researchers discovered that illiterate, non-English- speaking Mexican workers in Houston, Texas, consistently met best-practice labor productivity standards despite the complexity of the building industry s work.What is the real relationship between education and economic development? We have to suspect that continuing economic growth promotes the development of education even when governments don t force it. After all, that s how education got started. When our ancestors were hunters and gatherers 10,000 years ago, they didn t have time to wonder much about anything besides finding food. Only when humanity began to get its food in a more productive way was there time for other things.As education improved, humanity s productivity potential, they could in turn afford more education. This increasingly high level of education is probably a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for the complex political systems required by advanced economic performance. Thus poor countries might not be able to escape their poverty traps without political changes that may be possible only with broader formal education. A lack of formal education, however, doesn t constrain the ability of the developing world s workforce to substantially improve productivity for the forested future. On the contrary, constraints on improving productivity explain why education isn t developing more quickly there than it is.31. The author holds in paragraph 1 that the important of education in poor countries ___________.[A] is subject groundless doubts[B] has fallen victim of bias[C] is conventional downgraded[D] has been overestimated32. It is stated in paragraph 1 that construction of a new education system __________.[A]challenges economists and politicians[B]takes efforts of generations[C] demands priority from the government[D] requires sufficient labor force33.A major difference between the Japanese and U.S workforces is that __________.[A] the Japanese workforce is better disciplined[B] the Japanese workforce is more productive[C]the U.S workforce has a better education[D] ]the U.S workforce is more organize34. The author quotes the example of our ancestors to show that education emerged __________.[A] when people had enough time[B] prior to better ways of finding food[C] when people on longer went hung[D] as a result of pressure on government35. According to the last paragraph , development of education __________.[A] results directly from competitive environments[B] does not depend on economic performance[C] follows improved productivity[D] cannot afford political changesText 4The most thoroughly studied in the history of the new world are the ministers and political leaders of seventeenth-century New England. According to the standard history of American philosophy, nowhere else in colonial America was So much important attached to intellectual pursuits According to many books and articles, New England s leaders established the basic themes and preoccupations of an unfolding, dominant Puritan tradition in American intellectual life.To take this approach to the New Englanders normally mean to start with the Puritans theological innovations and their distinctive ideas about the church-important subjects that we may not neglect. But in keeping with our examination of southern intellectual life, we may consider the original Puritans as carriers of European culture adjusting to New world circumstances. The New England colonies were the scenes of important episodes in the pursuit of widely understood ideals of civility and virtuosity.The early settlers of Massachusetts Bay included men of impressive education and influence in England. `Besides the ninety or so learned ministers who came to Massachusetts church in the decade after 1629,There were political leaders like John Winthrop, an educated gentleman, lawyer, and official of the Crown before he journeyed to Boston. There men wrote and published extensively, reaching both New World and Old World audiences, and giving New England an atmosphere of intellectual earnestness.We should not forget , however, that most New Englanders were less well educated. While few crafts men or farmers, let alone dependents and servants, left literary compositions to be analyzed, The in thinking often had a traditional superstitions quality. A tailor named John Dane, who emigrated in the late 1630s, left an account of his reasons for leaving England that is filled with signs. sexual confusion, economic frustrations , and religious hope-all name together in a decisive moment when he opened the Bible, told his father the first line he saw would settle his fate, and read the magical words: come out from among them, touch no unclean thing , and I will be your God and you shall be my people. One wonders what Dane thought of the careful sermons explaining the Bible that he heard in puritan churched.Mean while , many settles had slighter religious commitments than Dane s, as one clergyman learned in confronting folk along the coast who mocked that they had not come to the New world for religion . Our main end was to catch fish.36. The author notes that in the seventeenth-century New England___________.[A] Puritan tradition dominated political life.[B] intellectual interests were encouraged.[C] Politics benefited much from intellectual endeavors.[D] intellectual pursuits enjoyed a liberal environment.37. It is suggested in paragraph 2 that New Englanders__________.[A] experienced a comparatively peaceful early history.[B] brought with them the culture of the Old World[C] paid little attention to southern intellectual life[D] were obsessed with religious innovations38. The early ministers and political leaders in Massachusetts Bay__________.[A] were famous in the New World for their writings[B] gained increasing importance in religious affairs[C] abandoned high positions before coming to the New World[D] created a new intellectual atmosphere in New England39. The story of John Dane shows that less well-educated New Englanders were often __________.[A] influenced by superstitions[B] troubled with religious beliefs[C] puzzled by church sermons[D] frustrated with family earnings40. The text suggests that early settlers in New England__________.[A] were mostly engaged in political activities[B] were motivated by an illusory prospect[C] came from different backgrounds.[D] left few formal records for later referencePart BDirections:Directions: In the following text, some sentences have been removed. For Questions (41-45), choose the most suitable one from the list A-G to fit into each of the numbered blank. There are two extra choices, which do not fit in any of the gaps.Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)Coinciding with the groundbreaking theory of biological evolution proposed by British naturalist Charles Darwin in the 1860s, British social philosopher Herbert Spencer put forward his own theory of biological and cultural evolution. Spencer argued that all worldly phenomena, including human societies, changed over time, advancing toward perfection. 41.____________.American social scientist Lewis Henry Morgan introduced another theory of cultural evolution in the late 1800s. Morgan, along with Tylor, was one of the founders of modern anthropology. In his work, he attempted to show how all aspects of culture changed together in the evolution of societies.42._____________.In the early 1900s in North America, German-born American anthropologist Franz Boas developed a new theory of culture known as historical particularism. Historical particularism, which emphasized the uniqueness of all cultures, gave new direction to anthropology. 43._____________ .Boas felt that the culture of any society must be understood as the result of a unique history and not as one of many cultures belonging to a broader evolutionary stage or type of culture. 44._______________.Historical particularism became a dominant approach to the study of culture in American anthropology, largely through the influence of many students of Boas. But a number of anthropologists in the early 1900s also rejected the particularist theory of culture in favor of diffusionism. Some attributed virtually every important cultural achievement to the inventions of a few, especially gifted peoples that, according to diffusionists, then spread to other cultures. 45.________________.Also in the early 1900s, French sociologist ?mile Durkheim developed a theory of culture that would greatly influence anthropology. Durkheim proposed that religious beliefs functioned to reinforce social solidarity. An interest in the relationship between the function of society and culture known as functionalism became a major theme in European, and especially British, anthropology.[A] Other anthropologists believed that cultural innovations, such as inventions, had a single origin and passed from society to society. This theory was known as diffusionism.[B] In order to study particular cultures as completely as possible, Boas became skilled in linguistics, the study of languages, and in physical anthropology, the study of human biology and anatomy.[C] He argued that human evolution was characterized by a struggle he called the survival of the fittest, in which weaker races and societies must eventually be replaced by stronger, more advanced races and societies.[D] They also focused on important rituals that appeared to preserve a people s social structure, such as initiation ceremonies that formally signify children s entrance into adulthood.[E] Thus, in his view, diverse aspects of culture, such as the structure of families, forms of marriage, categories of kinship, ownership of property, forms of government, technology, and systems of food production, all changed as societies evolved.[F]Supporters of the theory viewed as a collection of integrated parts that work together to keep a society functioning.[G] For example, British anthropologists Grafton Elliot Smith and W. J. Perry incorrectly suggested, on the basis of inadequate information, that farming, pottery making, and metallurgy all originated in ancient Egypt and diffused throughout the world. In fact, all of these cultural developments occurred separately at different times in many parts of the world.Part CDirections:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Your translation should be written carefully on ANSWER SHEET 2. (10 points)There is a marked difference between the education which every one gets from living with others, and the deliberate educating of the young. In the former case the education is incidental; it is natural and important, but it is not the express reason of the association.46It may be said that the measure of the worth of any social institution is its effect in enlarging and improving experience; but this effect is not a part of its original motive. Religious associations began, for example, in the desire to secure the favor of overruling powers and to ward off evil influences; family life in the desire to gratify appetites and secure family perpetuity; systematic labor, for the most part, because of enslavement to others, etc. 47Only gradually was the by-product of the institution noted, and only more gradually still was this effect considered as a directive factor in the conduct of the institution. Even today, in our industrial life, apart from certain values of industriousness and thrift, the intellectual and emotional reaction of the forms of human association under which the world"s work is carried on receives little attention as compared with physical output.But in dealing with the young, the fact of association itself as an immediate human fact, gains in importance.48 While it is easy to ignore in our contact with them the effect of our acts upon their disposition, it is not so easy as in dealing with adults. The need of training is too evident; the pressure to accomplish a change in their attitude and habits is too urgent to leave these consequences wholly out of account. 49Since our chief business with them is to enable them to share in a common life we cannot help considering whether or no we are forming the powers which will secure this ability.If humanity has made some headway in realizing that the ultimate value of every institution is its distinctively human effect we may well believe that this lesson has been learned largely through dealings with the young.50 We are thus led to distinguish, within the broad educational process which we have been so far considering, a more formal kind of education -- that of direct tuition or schooling. In undeveloped social groups, we find very little formal teaching and training. These groups mainly rely for instilling needed dispositions into the young upon the same sort of association which keeps the adults loyal to their group.Section Ⅲ WritingPart A51. Directions:Restrictions on the use of plastic bags have not been so successful in some regions. White pollution is still going on. Write a letter to the editor(s) of your local newspaper to1) give your opinions briefly and2) make two or three suggestionsYou should write about 100 words. Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use Li Ming instead. You do not need to write the address.Part B52. Directions:In your essay, you should1) describe the drawing briefly,2) explain its intended meaning, and then3) give your comments.You should write neatly on ANSHWER SHEET 2. (20 points)Section I Use of English1 5 BADBC 6 10 ADCBD11 15 DBCDA 16 20 CBAACSection II Reading ComprehensionPart A21 25 ABCAA 26 30 ACDAB31 35 DBBAC 36 40 BBDACPart B41 45 CEABGPart C46. 可以说，任何社会制度的价值在于它对扩大和改进经验方面的影响，但是这种影响并不是它原来的动机的一部分。47. 一种制度的副产品，只是逐步被注意到的，而这种效果被视为实施这种制度的一个指导性因素更加缓慢得多。48. 在和他们接触的时候，虽然容易忽略我们的行动对他们的倾向的影响，但是也不像与成年人打交道那么简单。49. 既然我们的主要任务在于使年轻人参与共同生活，我们禁不住考虑我们是否在形成获得这种能力的力量。50. 因此，我们可以在上面所考虑的广阔的教育过程之内区别出一种比较正规的教育，即直接的教导或学校教育。Section Ⅲ WritingPart A51. 应用文参考范文Dear editor，I am writing this letter to advise you of the pressing situation we are facing now. As we know, being accustomed to using plastic bag in our daily life, some of us still take the white pollution for granted. Plastic bag has become the indispensible part of our life, and the white pollution now is a ubiquitous phenomenon, which greatly worsens our environment.To save the situation from further aggravating, I would like to suggest that: firstly, our government should make a set of laws to punish the groups and individuals who are still polluting the environment; secondly, new technologies should be used to produce degradable and renewable materials; thirdly, the local media can make full use of its own influence to intensify the publicity in order to enhance people s awareness of environment.I hope that my suggestions are helpful, thank you for your attention!Sincerely yours，Li MingPart B52. 短文写作参考范文In the drawing, what first appears in front of us is a huge spider web, on which innumerable people are attached, like the catch of the owner of the web. What is more ironic is they are imprisoned in respective cabins, choosing contacting on line rather than communicating face to face.There is no doubt that the Internet provides us with considerable convenience. However, it drives too many individuals to be addicted to the fictional experience, and hence forget the traditional and most efficient communication method. Indifference has become a not uncommon phenomenon in the modern world. The following reasons may be contribute to the phenomenon. To begin with, people in mounting numbers, who are vividly called netters, indulge in on-line activities, because science and technology develops too fast for people to adapt to it. The Internet, in particular, moving forward with an unimaginable speed, provides people with a convenient tool of getting in touch with others, which lacks weighing its correctness. Moreover, the fierce competition also plays a role of forcing people to fear the situation, which results in people s habit of wallowing in the unreal world.Hence, it is the high time that we highlighted the imperative of face-to-face communication between people. The joint efforts of the specialists, the netters and the educators are needed to cultivate the whole society with the essentiality. Only in this way can we expect a healthy development of the relationship among individuals.

解放军文职招聘考试英雄时代——十八世纪的数学-解放军文职人员招聘-军队文职考试-红师教育

发布时间：2017-11-22 19:37:00英雄时代 十八世纪的数学17世纪最伟大的数学成就是微积分，18世纪的大部分数学工作则是多方面利用微积分方法所进行的新的创造．产生了现在仍在研究的许多数学新领域：微分方程、微分几何、变分法，等等．18世纪数学研究的特点是，取得的成果相当丰富，涉猎的领域十分广泛，但其中有些内容却经不起严格的推敲．18世纪的卓越数学家主要有英伦三岛的泰勒(B．Taylor，1685 1731)、马克劳林(C．Maclaurin，1698 1746)；欧洲大陆有瑞士的贝努利(Bernoulli)家族，以及18世纪数学界的中心人物、在数学史上与阿基米德(Archimedes)、牛顿(I．Newton)、高斯(F．Gauss，1777 1855)一起被称为 四个最伟大的数学家 的瑞士数学家欧拉(L．Euler，1707 1783)．随着牛顿的去世，以及牛顿与莱布尼茨(G．W．Leibniz)关于微积分优先权之争日趋激烈，英伦三岛数学界固守牛顿的流数方法，拒不接受欧洲大陆的数学思想，英伦三岛在牛顿尤其是在马克劳林之后，数学发展相对比较缓慢．继贝努利家族和欧拉之后，主宰18世纪的数学是法国数学家，他们中有棣莫弗(A．DeMoivre，1667 1754)、克莱罗(A．C．Clairaut，1713 1765)达朗贝尔(D Alembert，1717 1783)、兰伯特(J．H．La-mbert，1728 1777)著名的 三L ：拉格朗日(J．L．La－grange，1736 1813)、拉普拉斯(P．S．Laplace，1749 1827)、勒让德(A．M．Legendre，1752 1833)，以及蒙日(G．Monge，1746 1818)和卡诺(L．Carnot，1753 1823)．法国一直到19世纪上半叶仍是世界数学中心．18世纪数学工作的推动力是解决物理 自然科学的问题，工作的目标不是数学，而是解决物理问题．法国百科全书学派的狄德罗(D．Dideret，1713 1784)和达朗贝尔明确地把数学看作是自然科学的一个分支，这样数学在历史上第一次从属于自然科学，而且这种观点到今天仍有影响．这个世纪的数学家几乎无一例外地都从事于科学、工业技术、军事问题的研究，并且其认真程度丝毫不亚于研究数学．同时，数学家还逐渐抛弃了宇宙是上帝按照数学定律设计的信念，机械决定论开始占据人们的心灵，而这一切都得益于数学的巨大成就．18世纪可以说是数学史上的英雄时代．第一节 数学分析一、微积分18世纪数学的核心是以微积分为主的数学分析，这一世纪的中心人物是欧拉．牛顿、莱布尼茨创造了微积分，而欧拉则使这一数学领域充满了光辉灿烂的景色．拉普拉斯(P．S．Laplace)的话道出了当时的状况： 读读欧拉，读读欧拉(指其著作)，他是我们大家的老师． 这一评价甚至在今天也不过分．欧拉于1707年4月15日诞生于瑞士巴塞尔．小时由父亲任启蒙教师，12岁入当地中学，16岁毕业后遵从父愿，入巴塞尔大学神学系学习．在神学课程之余，他被约翰 贝努利(JohannBernoulli)的数学讲座深深吸引了，在贝努利兄弟的影响下，数学逐渐挤走了神学，占据了他的学习日程表，而且贝努利也开始对他刮目相看，热情地指点他．欧拉回忆约翰 贝努利时曾深情地说，贝努利让他每星期六下午到晚上自由地去他的住处，他让欧拉每解决一个问题，欧拉就能很顺利地解决10个问题．的确，在贝努利兄弟的指导下，欧拉已经具备了优秀数学家的素质，并开始从事数学研究．18岁时他就发表了数学论文．1726年，年仅19岁的欧拉由于在船的立桅方面的研究论文而获得巴黎科学院的奖金，从而在欧洲数学界崭露头角．这一年他正好大学毕业．在瑞士，年轻的欧拉未能获得自己所谋求的职位，恰巧这时约翰 贝努利在俄国彼得堡科学院任教授的儿子尼古拉 贝努利(Nicolaus Bernoulli)和丹尼尔 贝努利(Daniel Bernoulli)来信说，俄国欢迎欧拉．1727年5月17日欧拉来到彼得堡科学院任丹尼尔 贝努利的副手，1731年被任命为副教授，1733年他接替丹尼尔 贝努利担任彼得堡科学院的数学教授．他为俄国的数学发展、科学进步做了大量的工作，他的许多成果出现在彼得堡科学院的刊物上，帮助俄国政府解决了大量的物理学、工程学方面的难题．过度的案头工作使得这位数学大师得了眼病，不幸于1735年右眼失明，这一年他还只有28岁．1741年，欧拉应腓特烈大帝之邀担任柏林科学院物理数学研究所所长．除此之外，他还在宫廷为公主们讲授数学、物理、天文、哲学乃至宗教方面课程．讲述的内容曾以《给一位德国公主的信》，(Letters to a German Princess)发表，是一部风趣、文笔优雅的科普作品．他为普鲁士研究了保险、河运等方面的一系列问题．1766年，俄国沙皇诚挚的邀请终于使欧拉又回到了彼得堡科学院．实际上，他时刻也没忘记俄国．在1741 1766年的25年时间里，身在柏林的欧拉，却仍为彼得堡科学院写了上百篇论文，时刻关注着俄国的事务．的确，俄国、彼得堡科学院是他的第二故乡，是他施展聪明才智的地方．俄国人民也深深地热爱他，以致于俄国数学史家差不多总是将欧拉当作俄国数学家、俄国数学的创始人和彼得堡数学学派的奠基人．回到俄国后不久，严寒的气候对欧拉微弱的视力如雪上加霜，很快左眼视力衰退，最后于1766年底双目失明．这对于一位以案头工作为主的数学家的打击可想而知．此时他已59岁，年近花甲．然而，在他生命的最后17年，尽管双目失明，在全盲中他的成果却丝毫不减往年．1771年，圣彼得堡突起大火，殃及他的住宅，双目失明而又身染疾病的欧拉被围困在大火中．虽然一位工人冒着生命危险将这位大师从大火中抢救了出来，然而他的书库、大量研究成果却全部化为灰烬．沉重的打击，并没有使天性乐观的欧拉屈服，而是更加勤奋的工作．他以惊人的毅力与黑暗作斗争，以超常的记忆力和心算从事数学研究．人们发现，对不少有才能的数学家在纸上做起来也很困难的数学证明与计算，他却能心算出来！在数学史上，欧拉与阿基米德、牛顿、高斯一起被称为四位最伟大的数学家．而欧拉又是数学史上成果最多、数学著作最多的数学家．研究的数学领域遍历微积分、微分方程、解析几何与微分几何、数论、级数与变分法，他还是卓越的理论物理学家，通过将数学应用到整个物理学领域，创立了分析力学及刚体力学学科．他写了数学分析、解析几何与微分几何、代数、变分法、力学方面的许多课本，并且在百余年的时间里被用作标准教材．除课本外，从20岁开始，他以每年约800页左右的速度发表高质量的研究性论文，论文所获得的奖金成了他的生活收入主要来源．双目失明后，他还写了好几本书和400余篇研究论文．欧拉全集达厚厚的74卷．今天，我们几乎可以在数学的任何分支中看到欧拉的名字：初等几何中的欧拉线，立体几何中的欧拉定理，解析几何中的欧拉变换，方程中的欧拉解法，微积分中的欧拉积分，数论中的欧拉函数，微分方程中的欧拉方程，级数论中的欧拉常数，以及欧拉线、众多的欧拉方程、欧拉公式 ，令人目不暇接．然而，欧拉并不像牛顿、莱布尼茨那样终身一人．大量的数学、科学创造并未牺牲他所有的天伦之乐．他是一位称职的丈夫，13个孩子喜爱的父亲．与妻子一同安排家务，给孩子们做科学游戏，一起念诵《圣经》，在黄昏的林荫道上留下了幸福家庭的串串脚印．欧拉爱好思考哲学问题，曾数次与启蒙思想家伏尔泰(F．M．A．Voltaire)切磋，甚至欣赏伏尔泰对他的哲学观点的尖锐批评．可见其生性是多么豁达乐观．1783年9月18日傍晚，为庆祝计算气球上升定律的成功，他请朋友们吃饭，席间他兴致勃勃地讲述了计算要领，然后喝茶、逗孙子玩，突然疾病发作，烟斗落地，口中喃喃： 我死了． 于是 他停止了计算，也停止了生命 ．在欧拉的时代，随着微积分的发展，函数概念显得越来越重要了．18世纪时占主导地位的函数概念是，函数是由一个解析表达式(有限或无限)给出的．今天我们熟知的各种初等函数，大都得益于欧拉的系统总结．1748年，他写下了两卷本《无穷小分析引论》(Introduction Analysin Infinitorum)，首先，将函数定义为由一个变量与一些常量通过任何方式形成的解析表达式．随后系统地研究了各种函数．在三角函数方面，他一方面使sinx，cosx，tgx等彻底摆脱了直角三角形的局限，使之成为一般意义上的函数；同时弄清了三角函数的周期性，并且引入了弧度概念．他区分了显函数与隐函数，单值函数与多值函数．不仅如此，他还在意识到超越数的基础上，引入了超越函数，认为三角函数、对数函数、指数函数及某些特殊函数是超越函数，这些函数的特征是不能通过对某个表达式作代数运算得到．实际上，代数函数、超越函数的提出表明欧拉已经定义了多元函数f(x，y， )，其中二元函数f(x，y)、三元函数f(x ，y，z)在当时是最重要的．(其中，P(x)为x的有理函数，R(x)则为四次多项式)．分进行更一般的研究乃至建立椭圆函数论则是19世纪的事情了．今天已经遍及数学、物理的许多部门的两个非常重要的非初等函数 (Gamma)函数、 (Beta)函数，也是18世纪引入的．这两个函数都是欧拉创造的，最初是因为求解常微分方程的需要，随后哥德巴赫(C．Goldbach，1690 1764)考虑插值问题时就这个问题求教欧拉，于是欧拉在1729年10月13日写给哥德巴赫的信中解决了这个问题，并在1730年1月8日第二封信中引入了积分问题了 (n＋1)＝n (n)．明显地 (1)=1．于是对任何正整数n都有 (n＋1)＝n (n)＝n (n-1) 2 1 (1)在1830年1月8日给哥德巴赫的信中，欧拉还提出了今天的 函数不过欧拉在1771年已经发现了 函数与 -函数的重要关系：B(p，拉第二型积分，这一名称一直沿用到今天．勒让得还得到了下述结果：普通导数与偏导数的区别开始并不被人们重视，许多人对两者都用同样的记号，但莱布尼茨却察觉了这一点，1694年他曾用 m 表示 64年才出版的著作中，封田(A．Fonta－ine)对于x，y，z，u等变量的函数 ，给出了公式格朗日等人的改进，逐渐演变成了今天的偏导数符号．克莱罗在偏导数方面的主要贡献是得到了dz＝pdx＋qdy是全微分的条件，其中p，q是x，y的函数， 全微分 是由封田提出的，系克雷罗得到了这样的结果：pdx+qdy是全微分(即 方程的研究极为有用，它是积分因子法的理论基础．拉对由弧围成的有界区域上的二重定积分已经有了比较清楚的概念，并给出了用累次积分计算这种积分的程序，但对 f(x，y)dxdy的次序交换问题仍比较模糊．由于探讨引力、多体力学问题，拉格朗日、拉普拉斯、勒让德开始了三重积分研究．拉格朗日用三重积分表示引力．值得注意的是，积分变换在三重积分中发挥了重要的作用．1773年，拉格朗日在他关于旋转椭球引力的研究中，发现用直角坐标计算很困难，于是转用球坐标，他引入积分变换的实质是用r2sin d ddr代替dxdydz，于是他开始了多重积分变换的课题，1772年拉普拉斯也给出了球坐标变换．从此， 变换 在数学中逐渐为人们重视，18世纪的变换主要集中在两个方面，一个是坐标变换，这对于多重积分非常重要，另一是微分方程中的变换，其中最著名的是拉普拉斯变换．

解放军文职招聘考试十五至十七世纪的初等数学-解放军文职人员招聘-军队文职考试-红师教育

发布时间：2017-11-22 19:29:28十五至十七世纪的初等数学第一节 历史背景15世纪，希腊著作大量进入欧洲．特别是从1453年土耳其人征服君士坦丁堡以后，希腊学者纷纷携带文稿逃到意大利．复兴古典文化的旗帜首先在意大利打出来，兴起了一场历史上被称为文艺复兴的革命运动．到16世纪，这场运动已经席卷欧洲，极大地促进了思想解放和科学的发展，为近代数学的产生创造了良好的社会条件．关于这个时期的数学，有五个方面的背景必须提到．一、经济的发展在文艺复兴时期，由于个性解放，激起人们探索自然和改造世界的热忱，生产和贸易迅速发展起来，一个新的经济时代开始了．在这一时期，中国四大发明的传入对欧洲有重要意义．罗盘使得远洋航行成为可能，火药促进了管形火器的发展，从而使抛射体研究变得很重要．造纸和印刷术则直接促进了知识的传播．1438年，德国人约翰 古登堡(JohannGutenberg)发明了铅字，《几何原本》(Elements)的第一次印刷本终于在1482年出现于威尼斯．经济的发展不仅为数学发展提供了物质条件，而且提出了许多有待数学解决的问题．欧洲人在开辟新航路的探险中，必须确定船只的地理位置，这就要求用准确的数学方法测量地球的经纬度．为了航行安全，船身必须端正，这就要求测量和计算物体重心．对二次曲线的研究则是为了解决弹道学和天文学问题．另外，商业和税收中日益频繁的计算，要求人们改善计算方法，这也是数学发展的动力之一．二、知识的传播从阿拉伯反传欧洲的希腊著作多是希腊文或阿拉伯译本，一些学者将其译成拉丁文，以扩大影响．从16世纪开始，许多学者又用本地语言翻译希腊的经典著作．例如，塔尔塔利亚(N．Tar－taglia，1499 1557)便于1543年把欧几里得《几何原本》由拉丁文译成意大利文．这种翻译工作大大加快了数学知识的传播速度．在意大利的罗马和佛罗伦萨等城市，还通过建立图书馆的方法来启发公众．佛罗伦萨的设计学院也很有名，它创建于1563年，后来成了数学研究的中心．学院的成员把拉丁文著作译成本地语言，向公众作报告．建于1603年的罗马山猫学院也起到了这种作用．但当时的各大学仍在神学统治之下，对于传播科学作用不大，这是很遗憾的．三、人文主义的影响人文主义提倡人性，反对神权，在这一思想鼓励下，不少杰出人物脱颖而出，突破宗教束缚的科学事件不断涌现．1543年，波兰的哥白尼(N．copernicus，1473 1543)发表了《天体运行论》(DeRevolutionibus)，以日心说否定了在西方占统治地位千余年的地心说；比利时维萨留斯(A．Vesalius，1514 1564)的《人体构造》，则根据三百多张解剖图，指出圣经的许多错误．于是，随着生产力的发展及思想的解放，近代科学开始从神学中解放出来，走上独立发展的道路．引人注目的是，哥白尼、开普勒(J．Kepler，1571 1630)、伽利略(GalileoGalilei，1564 1642)等著名科学家都具有这样的观念：科学工作的最终目标是确立定量的数学规律．四、数学与宗教由于科学的发展，人们不再对圣经文字上的含义作无休止的考据和争辩，而开始面向自然．但自然科学并没有完全摆脱神学的束缚．有趣的是，数学家们在神学和科学之间建立了某种妥协，使他们的数学研究不受宗教界干扰．他们把上帝推崇为一个至高无上的数学家，说上帝在构造宇宙时已经把数学规律放在其中了，因此寻找大自然的数学规律便成为一件合法的宗教活动．每一条规律的发现都被说成是证明了上帝的智慧而并非研究者的智慧．例如开普勒在每次获得发现后，从不忘记对上帝写颂歌．伽利略也曾说过： 上帝在自然界的规律中令人赞美地体现出来的，并不亚于他在圣经字句中所表现的． 这种理论甚至影响到17世纪的莱布尼茨(G．W．Leibniz，1646 1716)，他说： 世界是按上帝的计算创造的． 就这样，宗教与科学似乎融为一体了．但实际上，上帝只是形式，而科学才是内容，这一点是很明显的．五、科学与实验文艺复兴中实验的兴起对数学发展是一个很大的推动力．随着大批实践者尤其是手工业者的经验积累，以及他们提出的问题的启示，系统的观察和实验逐步产生了．在古希腊纯数学的影响下，一些有识之士开始把数学思想引入实验，纯科学和实践的兴趣被融合在一起．例如，达 芬奇(LeonardodaVinci，1452 1519)便热衷于在实验中寻找数量关系，他认为在科学中， 凡是和数学没有联系的地方，都是不可靠的． 在他之后的培根(F．Bacon，1561 1626)和笛卡儿(R．Descartes，1596 1650)，则分别强调了实验方法与数学方法的重要性，为近代科学打下方法论的基础．培根认为，任何真正的科学都应建立在实验的基础上，而归纳法则是由实验获得知识的主要方法．笛卡儿则宣称科学的本质是数学，并力求找出一种兼备归纳法和演泽法二者之长的新方法．两人的共同之处是重视科学的应用，培根说： 把得到的真理应用到人类的福利上，是始终要记在心里的目标． 笛卡儿也认为，把数学方法只用到数学本身是没有价值的．实验和数学的结合逐渐成为欧洲科学的一个特点．科学家们尤其重视理想实验，在这种实验中，由于排除了次要因素对实验的干扰，有利于数学规律的发现．伽利略正是通过斜面实验发现了自由落体定律和水平方向的惯性原理．开普勒行星运动定律的发现，则是数学方法与系统观察相结合的结果．